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Minggu, 31 Januari 2010

Hubungan Persepsi Mahasiswa Terhadap Profesi Pendidik

Hubungan Persepsi Mahasiswa Terhadap Profesi Pendidik, Peranan Dosen, Iklim Kelas, Layanan Perpustakaan Dan Motivasi Belajar Dengan Prestasi Belajar Pada Program Pgsd Dan Pgtk

Lptk Negeri Di Pulau Jawa


Abstract

Sita Ratnaningsih, 2008. The Relation of University Student’s Perception about Educator Profession, The Lecturer’s Role, Class Climate, The Library Service and The Study Motivation with the Study Achievement on PGSD and PGTK major of Public LPTK in Java.
The efforts to increase the quality of education which conducted by LPTK (Lembaga Penyelenggara Tenaga Kependidikan) / Education Labourer Organizer Institution in Indonesia, generally don’t show the good result yet. Increasing the achievement of university student is one of the efforts. There are many factor to support the efforts, that is university student’s perception about educator profession, the role of the lecturer, the class climate, the library service, and the motivation of university student. In connection with the matter, the purpose of this research is to knowing the direct relation between :1) university student’s perception about educator profession and the study motivation, 2) the lecturer’s role and the study motivation, 3) the lecturer’s role and the class climate, 4) the lecturer’s role and the library service, 5) library service and the study motivation, 6) library service and the study achievement, 7) class climate and the study motivation, 8) study motivation and the study achievement, 9) the indirect relation between university student’s perception about educator profession and the study achievement through study motivation, 10) the lecturer’s role and the study achievement through study motivation, 11) the class climate and the study achievement through study motivation.
The design of this research use survey method, correlation type. And the research population is the university student semester IV in the major of PGSD and PGTK on the public LPTK in Java who has pass the examination on years of 2007/2008. According to the Krejcie table and the Harry King nomogram, from 1008 of university students, 205 was taken as the sample. The extraction of the sample use random sampling proportional technique. Inquiry has been use to collecting the data and analyzed using SEM (Structural Equation Modeling) analysis technique with the AMOS 4.10 program.
The conclusion of the research are : 1) the average of perception level of university students about educator profession, the role of the lecturer, class climate, the library service, and the study motivation of university student are on the high category, 2) the developed model is good (fit). These means that the developed model can be explained by variables used in this research, 3) there is a direct relation between : a) the lecturer’s role and study motivation, b) the lecturer’s role and the class climate, c) the lecturer’s role and the library service, d) the library service and the study motivation, e) the library service and the study achievement, f) the class climate and the study motivation, g) study motivation and the study achievement, also the indirect relation between : h) university student’s perception about educator profession and the study achievement through the study motivation, i) the lecturer’s role and the study achievement through study motivation, j) class climate and the study achievement through study motivation.
Based on the research finding, conclusion, and the implication of the result, the suggestion results are : 1) the chief of PGSD and PGTK major, should be establish the specially interview on the university student recruitment who nominate at the new university student acceptation in the selection of public LPTK in each institution, 2) lecturers surroundings PGSD and PGTK major of public LPTK in Java have to pay attention in class condition which education activities take place and fulfilling the facilities on the class so that the comfortable situation can be achieve to increasing the quality of education process that already have done between the university student and the lecturer in the class, 3) the lecturer have to get along with their university students in order to intensify the interaction between the lecturer and university students and also the interaction between university students so that the class climate become more conducive in their comfortable and conducive situation, 4) the lecturers need to make the rule on the class majoring in PGSD and PGTK of public LPTK in Java which made by the lecturers and the university students and also have agreed by the major chief to raise up the discipline of the high class, 5) the lecturers in major of PGSD and PGTK in public LPTK in Java must give the reinforcement of intrinsic motivation by remaining that the study is a responsibility of university students and also support them to increasing their study achievement so that can be strengthen the enthusiasm and their interest to studying their lecture theory and the practices in the field, 6) beside being energetic, the university students must be follow their university lecture by learning them in the library, because the library is one of the support facilities to achieve success for the university students, for that the institute must make it good and available, 7) for the next researcher/observer who want to make research about the study achievement, must to point out the variables that not observe yet or maybe there is a management reparation on the campus about increasing the university.

Keywords : educator profession, the lecturer’s role, class climate, library service, study motivation, study achievement.
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Kemampuan Memberdayakan Media Pembelajaran Mahasiswa

Kemampuan Memberdayakan Media Pembelajaran Mahasiswa

Pendidikan Fisika FMIPA UM Peserta PPL dengan Penerapan Lesson Study di SMA Widya Gama Malang


Noormayasanti

Abstract: Lesson study is one solution of the Mahasiswa Pendidikan Fisika of PPL participant (MPF) to get knowledges and experiences about the lesson in class. Experiences from lesson study activity be hope can to increase MPF’s matership profesionalizm. One of the matership profesionalizm is capability to deceive lesson instruments. The purposes of this research are to describing: 1) the implementation of lesson study from deceive lesson instruments perspectif, 2) capability to deceive lesson instruments, dan 3) the increasing capability to deceive lesson instruments of MPF. This reaserch is: 1) the implementation of lesson study from deceive lesson instruments perspectif is implemented and increasing from phase 1 to phase 2 lesson study, 2) the average of deceive lesson instruments of MPF is 31,71 (enaugh capabilited), 3) the average of deceive lesson instruments of MPF is 20,33 (not capabilited) in phase 1 lesson study and increasing phase 2 is 40,25 (capabilited).
Kata kunci: kemampuan memberdayakan, media pembelajaran, PPL, penerapan lesson study.
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System Thinking, Conflict and Perceptions

System Thinking, Conflict and Perceptions


Executive Summary
By: Ika Putri Larasati, Ce Hu, Fei Yan, Jie Lu


Conflict of interest has been an inherent part of companies that have multiple stakeholders. The multiple stakeholders signify that each stakeholder has different interests which are vulnerable to create conflict. The condition requires effective management to solve the conflicts which satisfies stakeholders. The effective management is influenced by system thinking. System thinking is a mind framework to consider every case in various standpoints based on cognition that people basically have interrelationship (Senge 1990). It indicates that companies require cognition that their activities give impact on stakeholders. Companies also realize that their stakeholders’ actions have essential influences. However, several companies preclude the system thinking which gives consequence to unsolved conflict and even creates worse problems. Gunns Limited Company (Guns) is one of example of these companies.


Gunns is a hardwood forest products manufacturer which has been operated in Tasmania forest since 1875. Gunns’s activities in the Tasmania forest have generated criticisms from public and environmentalists because Gunns has been considered deteriorate environment, human’s health and communities’ job. Higher criticisms have emerged because Gunns has proposed a pulp mill project in Tama Valley of $ 1.8 billion investment. Gunns states that the main objective of the project is to create numerous jobs and to increase the state’s economy. The Tasmanian government supports the project because it is forecasted to generate essential economy and social benefit for the state. Conversely, communities and environmentalists argue that the project has detrimental impacts on environment.

According to the case, this report attempts to analyze main causes and characteristics of conflicts of interests. This report also evaluates Gunns’s and the Tasmanian government’s practices to manage the conflict in term of system thinking. This report is derived into four parts of analysis. The first part is conflict of interest among stakeholders. The second part focuses on system thinking. The third part analyzes conflict among stakeholders and Gunns’ failures to preclude system thinking. Finally, the fourth part will recommend solutions. These solutions are basically determined by a requirement of system thinking to solve the conflict of interests which leads to ethical practices. There are several ethical practices as solutions. The first is a sustainable environmental management. The second solution is considerable government performances. The third is negotiations with primary stakeholders. The fourth is improvement of corporate governance. The final solution is building good relationships with communities and environmentalists.

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Bibliography

Anjani, J. 2007, ‘The Forest Wars’, Melbourne University Press, pp. 261-265, 285-303.
Briggs, B. 2005. ‘Good Neighbours are good for Business’, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development: The OECD Observer, no. 248, pp. 25.
Driscoll, C. 1996, ‘Fostering Constructive Conflict Management in a Multistakeholder Context: The Case of The forest Round Table on Sustainable Development’, The International Journal of Conflict Management, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 156-172.
Federal Govt's pulp mill assessment 'illegal' , viewed by 2 October, 2007,
Flanagan, R. 2007, ‘Extracts from “Out of Control: The Tragedy of Tasmania’s Forests’, The Monthly, May 2007, pp. 1-10
Gay, John E. 2006, Environemtal Policy, viewed 2 October 2007,
Hofmann, M.A. 2007, ‘Large Companies Worry about Reputational Risks’, Business Insurance Journal, vol. 41, no. 18, pp. 4.
Kaler, J. 2002, ‘Responsibility, Accountability and Governance’, Blackwell Publishers Ltd, vol. 11, no. 4, pp. 327-334.

Karna, J., Hansen, E., Juslin, H. 2003, ‘Social Responsibility in Environmental Marketing Planning’, European Journal of Marketing, vol. 37, no. 5/6, pp. 848.

Kujala, J. 2001, ‘Analyzing Moral Issues in Stakeholder Relations’, Business Ethics: A European Review, vol. 10, no. 3, pp. 233-247.
Manring, N.J. 2005, ‘The Politics of Accountability in National Forest Planning’, Administration & Society, vol. 37, no. 1, pp. 57.
Mixed reaction to decision on pulp mill assessment, viewed by 1 October, 2007,
Ogri, O.R. 2001, ‘A Review of the Nigerian Petroleum Industry and the Associated Environmental Problems’, The Environmentalis, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 11-21.
Manring, N.J. 2005, ‘The Politics of Accountability in National Forest Planning’, Administration & Society, vol. 37, no. 1, pp. 57.
Parry, J. 2003, ‘Three Choppers Become Tree Planters’, Appropriate Technology, vol. 30, no. 4, pp. 38.
Revised Project Scope 26 August 2005, Proposed Bleached Kraft Pulp Mill in Northern Tasmania, draft proposal of Gunns Limited, viewed 2 October 2007, http://www.rpdc.tas.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/65164/Further_comment_24_10_05.pdf
River, S.W. & Healy, S. 2006, Guide to Environmental Risk Management, CCH Australia Limited.
Robbins, SP, Millet, B, Cacioppe, R & Waters Marsh, T 1998, Organisational Behavior: Leading and Managing in Australia and New Zealand, Prentice Hall, Sydney.
Schermerhorn, J.R. 1993, ‘Management for Productivity: Fourth Edition’, John Willey & Sons, Inc., United States of America.
Senge, P.M. 1990, ‘The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization’, Random Century Group Australia (Pty) Ltd
Tamar tourism operators air their pulp mill fears, viewed by 1 October, 2007,
Wilcox, T 2007, Managing Multiple Roles and Multiple Stakeholders, lecture notes distributed in the unit Business Communication, Ethics and Practice, New South Wales University, Sydney on 17 September 2007 Selengkapnya...

Jumat, 29 Januari 2010

Artikel Skripsi: Code Switching and Code Mixing

Analysis of Code Switching and Code Mixing in the Novel Macarin Anjing by Christian Simamora

Najmah Soraya Wahdani

Abstract

ImageThe purpose of this study is to find out the use of code switching and code mixing in the novel Macarin Anjing by Christian Simamora. This study investigates the types of code switching and code mixing which occur in the dialogues spoken by the characters, the reasons why the characters switch or mix their dialogues, and the context of code switching and code mixing in the dialogues. The data are collected by writing the dialogues containing code mixing and code switching in a field note and then marking the mixed words or switched phrases or sentences in the dialogues. The data are analyzed using Hoffman’s theory of types and reasons of code switching and code mixing. In addition, Saville-Troike’s theory of reasons of code switching and code mixing is also used in this study. The results show that most characters use Intra-sentential switching in their conversation because there are many of English terms that are familiar to them so that they can use in their sentences easily. The results also show that most characters switch or mix their dialogues because of expressing their group identity.

Key words: Code Switching, Code Mixing, Novel, Macarin Anjing

Introduction

Literary books in Indonesia have been developed since many years ago both in their quantity and their quality. Since the coming of foreigners who use English in their communication, Indonesian people become able to use English and begin to teach/spread it to other Indonesian people. Since then, Indonesian literary books have also been influenced by English that we often see books that contain English.

One kind of Indonesian literary book that is much influenced by English is the novel. A novel is an extended fictional prose narrative focusing on a few primary characters but often involving scores of secondary characters. It involves events, characters, and what the characters say and do (Abrams, 1993). In this case, the novel Macarin Anjing is a novel which includes the dialogues containing English. The characters in this novel often mix their bahasa Indonesia with English or even switch from bahasa Indonesia into English. This kind of situation may be called language mixing and switching.

Language mixing and switching can actually happen only in the language of a bilingual. The definition of bilingual itself is a person who has some functional ability in the second language (Spolsky, 1998: 45). On the other hand, Hamers and Blanc (1987: 265) define bilingual as “an individual who has an access to two or more different codes or languages”. While Macnamara (1967), as quoted by Hamers and Blanc (1987: 6) defines bilingual as “anyone who possesses a minimal competence in one of the four skills, i.e. listening comprehension, speaking, reading and writing in a language other than his mother tongue”.

In line with the explanation above, the characters in the novel can be considered as bilinguals since they have met the requirement of bilinguals stated by Hamers and Blanc. Besides, they have also met the requirements of bilinguals stated by Spolsky and Macnamara.

The characters in the novel is actually one kind of speech community. The members of the same speech community should share linguistic norms, i.e. understanding, values and attitudes about language varieties present in their community. In this case, the characters of the novel communicate with each other using the language that has certain specifications such as the case of language mixing and switching.

In addition, code switching and code mixing are also closely related to the phenomenon of diglossia. According to Ferguson, diglossia exists in a society when it has two distinct codes which show clear functional separation; that is one employed in one set of circumstances ((H), i.e. has high prestige) and the other in an entirely different set ((L), i.e. has low prestige). For instance, Javanese language has the form of diglossia since it has the (H), i.e. Krama Inggil and also the (L), i.e. Ngoko.

On the other hand, Fishman (1972: 136) defines diglossia as “the phenomenon in which one language is considered higher than another”. While according to Syafi’ie (1981: 40), the language situation in Indonesia is considered higher than the local languages and English is considered higher in prestige and social status than bahasa Indonesia. Therefore, the characters in the novel are likely to do code mixing and code switching in their communication with others.

The phenomenon of code mixing and code switching itself has become an interesting topic to be discussed, especially in the novel like Macarin Anjing by Christian Simamora. Since this novel contains the reflection of teenagers’ life nowadays, mainly their problems of love, it may lead the readers that are mostly teenagers to begin imitating the way the characters behave or even the way they communicate to each other. So, this research is conducted to observe this phenomenon more deeply.

Literature Review

The Novel Macarin Anjing

The novel Macarin Anjing is one of the novels written by Christian Simamora. In this novel, the characters often use code switching and code mixing in their dialogues. This situation is primarily influenced by the writer himself. The writer once has studied in London School majoring at Journalism and Media Studies. From this school, he might get such a lot of information and knowledge about English so that he applied it when he wrote his novels, especially the novel entitled Macarin Anjing.

The main reason why the writer use code switching and code mixing in the novel is to make it more readable by the readers who are mostly teenagers. Regardless of the willingness to ‘contaminate’ the language, the use of mixed languages is considered common in the circle of teenagers in Jakarta. Besides, he found out that the readers of his previous novels like very much the parts of the novels which contain English. Therefore, looking into those discoveries, he decide to keep maintaining his habit of using code switching and code mixing within his novels as his writing style.

Speech Community

Human beings are social beings who are always committed to a certain group of people called a community. A particular community has its own characteristics, including the way of communication. This community is called speech community. Bloomfield (1933: 42) offers the simple definition of speech community. He says that a speech community is a group of people who interact by means of speech. In addition, Spolsky (1998: 24) also defines speech community as “all the people who speak a single language and so share notions of what is same or different in phonology or grammar”.

The members of the same speech community should share linguistic norms. That is, they share understanding and values of attitudes toward language varieties present in their community. A speech community is no more than some kind of social group whose speech characteristics are of interest and can be described in a coherent manner (Wardhaugh, 1986: 113).

Because of the system, Gumperz (1971: 115) further states that “the language of a speech community can be analyzed both within the context of the language itself and also within the broader context of social behavior”. One example of this is the phenomenon of language switching and mixing.

Bilingualism

As has been mentioned previously, Spolsky (1998: 45) defines a bilingual as “a person who has some functional ability in the second language”. This may vary from a limited ability in one or more domains, to very strong command of both languages (sometimes called balanced bilingualism). The definition of bilingualism itself is ‘the native-like’ control of two languages (Bloomfield, 1933: 56). Titone (1972) as quoted by Hamers and Blanc (1987: 7) has also proposed another definition of bilingualism as “the individual’s capacity to speak a second language while following the concepts and structures of that language rather than paraphrasing his or her mother tongue”.

Related to speech community, Hamers and Blanc (1987: 6) define bilingualism as “the state of a linguistic community in which two languages are in contact with the result that two codes can be used in the same interaction and that a number of individuals are bilingual”. Similarly, Fishman (1971), as quoted by Platt (1975: 88), suggests that bilingualism can happen if there is a fairly large and complex speech community, therefore the people in that community become aware of acquiring several languages.

In addition, Gumperz (1971: 222) also mentions that bilingual people usually use their own idioms for in-group communication and the common language for their interaction and communication with outsiders. In this case, the bilinguals have a repertoire of domain-related rules of language choice (Spolsky, 1998: 46), meaning that bilinguals are able to choose which language he is going to use.

In other words, since the members of a bilingual community vary in the capacity of mastering the languages used in the community, they have to be able to set a condition where they can communicate effectively. This condition leads them to do code switching and code mixing.

Diglossia

A diglossic situation exists in a society when it has two distinct codes which show clear functional separation; that is, one is employed in one set of circumstances and the other in an entirely different set. Ferguson (1959: 336) defines diglossia as a language situation in a multilingual community where there is one language considered higher (H) in prestige and social status than the others (L).

Fishman (1967) introduced the notion that diglossia could be extended to situations found in many societies where forms of two genetically unrelated (or at least historically distant ) languages occupy the H and L norms, such that one of the languages (e.g. Latin in medieval Europe) is used for religious, educational, literacy and other such prestigious domains, while another language (in the case of medieval Europe, the vernacular languages of that era) is rarely used for such purposes, being only employed for more informal, primarily spoken domains.

Scotton (1986) proposes the terms `narrow' for Ferguson's 1959 version of diglossia, and `broad' (or `diglossia extended') to refer to Fishman's expansion of the discussion. According to Scotton, few truly diglossic (in the 1959 sense) communities actually exist, because to meet the criteria, two conditions must hold: (1) everyone speaks the Low variety as a mother tongue, and (2) the High variety is never used in informal conversations.

Code Switching and Code Mixing

According to Victoria and Rodman (1998), code switching is a term in linguistics referring to using more than one language or dialect in conversation. Code-switching can be distinguished from other language contact phenomena such as loan translation (calques), borrowing, pidgins and creoles, and transfer or interference.

The other phenomenon closely related to code switching is code mixing. Code mixing occurs when conversants use both languages together to the extent that they change from one language to the other in the course of a single utterance (Wardhaugh, 1986: 103). It means that the conversants just change some of the elements in their utterance. Code mixing takes place without a change of topic and can involve various levels of language, e.g., morphology and lexical items.

Types of Code Switching and Code Mixing (Hoffman 1991: 112)

(1) Emblematic

In this kind of code switching, tags and certain set phrases in one language are inserted into an utterance otherwise in another, as when a Panjabi/English bilingual says: It's a nice day, hana? (hai nā isn't it).

(2) Intra-sentential

This kind of code mixing occurs within a clause or sentence boundary, as when a Yoruba/English bilingual says: Won o arrest a single person (won o they did not).

(3) Intersentential

This kind of code switching occurs at a clause or sentence boundary, where each clause or sentence is in one language or the other, as when a Spanish/English bilingual says: Sometimes I'll start a sentence in English y termino en español (and finish it in Spanish). This last may also occur as speakers take turns.

(4) Intra-lexical code mixing

This kind of code mixing which occurs within a word boundary, such as in shoppã (English shop with the Panjabi plural ending) or kuenjoy (English enjoy with the Swahili prefix ku, meaning ‘to’).

(5) Establishing continuity with the previous speaker

This kind of code switching occurs to continue the utterance of the previous speaker, as when one Indonesian speaker speaks in English and then the other speaker tries to respond in English also. Yet, that speaker can also switch again to bahasa Indonesia. For instance:

Speaker 1: I can’t leave him ‘coz I love him so much…

Speaker 2: Correct! You got the point! Kata 'banget' itulah letak permasalahanmu sekarang ini.

(6) Involving a change of pronounciation

This kind of code switching or code mixing occurs at the phonological level, as when Indonesian people say an English word, but modify it to Indonesian phonological structure. For instance, the word ‘strawberry’ is said to be ‘stroberi’ by Indonesian people.

Reasons for Bilinguals to Switch or Mix their Languages (Hoffman, 1991:116)

1. Talking about a particular topic

People sometimes prefer to talk about a particular topic in one language rather than in another. Sometimes, a speaker feels free and more comfortable to express their emotional feelings in a language that is not their everyday language.

2. Quoting somebody else

People sometimes like to quote a famous expression or saying of some well-known figures. In Indonesian, those well-known figures are mostly from some English-speaking countries. Then, because many of the Indonesian people nowadays are good at English, those famous expressions or sayings can be quoted intact in their original language.

3. Being emphatic about something

Usually, when someone who is talking using a language that is not his native tongue suddenly wants to be emphatic about something, he/she, either intentionally or unintentionally, will switch from his second language to his first language. Or, on the other hand, there are some cases where people feel more convenient to be emphatic in their second language rather than in their first language.

4. Interjection (Inserting sentence fillers or sentence connectors)

Language switching and language mixing among bilingual or multilingual people can sometimes mark an interjection or sentence connector. It may happen unintentionally or intentionally.

5. Repetition used for clarification

When a bilingual wants to clarify his/her speech so that it will be understood more by the listener, he/she can sometimes use both of the languages that he masters saying the same utterance (the utterance is said repeatedly).

6. Intention of clarifying the speech content for interlocutor

When bilingual talks to another bilingual, there will be lots of code switching and code mixing occur. It means to make the content of his/her speech runs smoothly and can be understood by the hearer.

7. Expressing group identity

Code switching and code mixing can also be used to express group identity. As it has been mentioned previously, the way of communication of academic people in their disciplinary groupings, are obviously different from other groups. In other words, the way of communication of one community is different from the people who are out of the community (Barnett, 1994: 7).

Additional Reasons Given by Saville-Troike (1986: 69)

1) To soften or strengthen request or command

For Indonesian people, mixing and switching bahasa Indonesia into English can also soften a request because English is not their native tongue so it does not sound as direct as bahasa Indonesia. However, code mixing and code switching can also strengthen a command since the speaker can feel more powerful than the listener because he/she can use a language that not everybody can.

2) Because of real lexical need

The most common reason for bilinguals to switch or mix their languages is due to the lack of equivalent lexicon in the languages. When an English-Indonesian bilingual has a word that is lacking in English, he will find it easier to say it in bahasa Indonesia. And vice versa, when he/she has a word that is lacking in bahasa Indonesia, he/she will use the English term.

3) To exclude other people when a comment is intended for only a limited audience

Sometimes people want to communicate only to certain people or community they belong to. To avoid the other community or people interfering their communication, they may try to exclude those people by using the language that not everybody knows/masters.

Research Questions

(1) What are the types of code switching and code mixing found in the dialogue of the novel Macarin Anjing by Christian Simamora?

(2) What are the probable reasons why the characters in the novel Macarin Anjing by Christian Simamora mix their bahasa Indonesia with English or switch from bahasa Indonesia into English, or the other way around?

(3) In what context do the characters in the novel Macarin Anjing by Christian Simamora mix their bahasa Indonesia with English or switch their bahasa Indonesia into English?

Methodology

The research design of this study is descriptive qualitative. This research will show the nature of the situation as it exists at the time of the study as stated by Gay (1987: 189), “descriptive research determines and reports the way the things are”. This research is also qualitative since all the data collection is in the form of words. Since this research is a descriptive qualitative research, the main instrument of this research is the researcher herself as the key-human-instrument. There is only one kind of sources of data in this research, that is, the dialogues spoken by the characters in the novel Macarin Anjing by Christian Simamora.

Procedure

To collect the data, the researcher first chooses the dialogues in the novel Macarin Anjing by Christian Simamora that contain some forms of language mixing and switching. Some other dialogues that are in English only or bahasa Indonesia only are excluded because they do not contain language mixing and switching. The dialogues that contain language mixing and switching are selected randomly through the last chapter.

Data Analysis

After all the data are collected, the next step is data analysis, where the collected data from the dialogues are analyzed using the following steps:

1. Coding the data based on the types, the reasons, and the contexts of code switching and code mixing. The analysis uses the six types of code switching and code mixing and the ten reasons why the characters in the novel Macarin Anjing by Christian Simamora mix or switch their languages.

2. Discussing and summarizing the findings. In this step, the researcher shows how many of the six types of code switching and code mixing are found in the dialogues of the novel Macarin Anjing by Christian Simamora. Also, the researcher shows how many of the ten reasons of language mixing and switching and the context of each category are found in the dialogues of the novel Macarin Anjing by Christian Simamora.

Findings and Discussions

Table 4.1 Types of Code Switching and Code Mixing in the Novel Macarin Anjing by Christian Simamora

No.

Types

Frequency

Percentages

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Intra-sentential

Intersentential

Intra-lexical code mixing

Involving a change of spelling

Emblematic

Establishing continuity with the previous speaker

74

51

12

9

7

5

46,8 %

32,3 %

7,6 %

5,7 %

4,4 %

3,2 %

TOTAL

158

100 %

From table 4.2 it is found out that among the six types of code switching and code mixing, there are just five out of them that can be found in the data. Yet, there is a new type occurs in the data (involving the change of spelling). The highest frequency found in the novel is intra-sentential switching. It may because there are some English words that are familiar to the characters so that they can easily use them in their dialogues (within the sentence). And the lowest rank is establishing continuity with the previous speaker. It may occur because the characters think that they do not have to respond to the utterances of the speakers which contain code switching and code mixing in the same way.

Table 4.2 Reasons for Code Switching and Code Mixing in the Novel Macarin Anjing by Christian Simamora

No.

Reasons

Frequency

Percentages

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

xpressing group identity

Talking about a particular topic

Because of real lexical need

Being emphatic about something

Repetition used for clarification

To soften or strengthen request or command

Intention of clarifying the speech content for interlocutor

Interjection (Inserting sentence fillers or sentence connectors)

Quoting somebody else

53

43

40

22

21

21

17

14

1

22,8 %

18,5 %

17,2 %

9,5 %

9,1 %

9,1 %

7,3 %

6,0 %

0,4 %

TOTAL

232

100 %

The frequency of the occurrence of the reasons of code switching and code mixing in the novel Macarin Anjing by Christian Simamora is started from the highest one to the lowest one. The highest rank among the reasons is to express their group identity. Since the characters in this novel are high school students, they frequently do code switching and code mixing in their dialogues. They use the English words which are usually used by the foreigners to greet their friends, colleagues, or acquaintances. It becomes some kind of pride for them that they can greet their friends in the way the foreigners do. While the lowest rank among the reasons is quoting somebody else. It may occur because the characters are not used to quote the saying of famous people. Since the dialogues are informal ones, it may be more comfortable for the characters to do code switching and code mixing in the usual way. Another reason which is not used at all by the characters is to exclude other people when a comment is intended for only a limited audience. In this case, the characters do the dialogues within their own groups. So, they do not have to exclude other people in their dialogues.

Conclusions

According to the review of the related literatures, there are six types of code switching and code mixing. In this research, there are five out from six types of code switching and code mixing can be found in the novel Macarin Anjing by Christian Simamora. Yet, it is found out that there is a new type of code mixing in the novel, which is involving a change of spelling. Most of the characters in the novel Macarin Anjing by Christian Simamora use intra-sentential switching in their dialogues. It is because there are quite many words in English that are familiar to them and they can use them in their sentences easily. On the other hand, the type that occurs the least is establishing continuity with the previous speaker. Although many of the characters are fluent enough in English, just a few characters want to respond to the speakers who do code switching and code mixing in the same way as they do. Besides, there is no type of code switching and code mixing which involves the change of pronunciation since the media is a written text, so that it is quite hard to know the pronunciation of the statements says by the characters.

From the ten reasons why bilingual people switch or mix their codes, there are nine reasons that can be used to explain the code switching and code mixing in the novel Macarin Anjing by Christian Simamora. Most of the characters switch or mix their codes in order to express their group identity, which means that they belong to a particular speech community, of which the members are able to use both English and bahasa Indonesia in their dialogues. On the other hand, none of the characters switch or mix their codes in order to exclude other people when a comment is intended for only a limited audience. It is mainly because the characters do code switching and code mixing only within their own group (bilingual community). So, they feel that they do not have to exclude other people since they can use bahasa Indonesia outside their group.

In this research it is found out that the context in which the characters do code switching and code mixing is in informal situation. They use code switching and code mixing to express their feelings and emotions, such as anger, empathy, or just usual statements. In this case, they feel more comfortable to do code switching and code mixing because they do not want to be too melancholic if they just use bahasa Indonesia in their dialogues.

Suggestions

Through this study, it is found out that sociolinguistics research can be done in various media. So far, there have been a lot of sociolinguistic studies done on spoken discourses. On the other hand, this research is done to analyze written discourse, which is in the form of dialogues in a novel. Those dialogues are the reflection of the way people speak nowadays. So, it will stand up-to-date from time to time. Therefore, this research may suggest the sociolinguistics students not to reject sociolinguistics researches, since they may always stand up-to-date and they can always be done to any up-to-date media.

Since this study has not involved all aspects of code switching and code mixing, and especially about the language in the dialogue of a novel, it is expected that the future researchers can develop this research by including all related aspects of code switching and code mixing, especially about the language of the dialogue in a novel. Moreover, since the references about the language of the dialogue in a novel are not yet available so far, the future researchers are expected to be able to find more related references about the language of the dialogue in a novel. They are also expected to explore and investigate some other phenomena of code switching and code mixing in any speech community in order to reveal some other types and reasons of code switching and code mixing.

References

Abrams, M. H. 1993. A Glossary of Literary Terms. 6th edition. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace College Pub.

Barnett, R. 1994. Recovering an Academic Community: Above but not Beyond Academic Community. London: Jessica Kingsley Publisher Ltd.

Bloomfield, L. 1933. Language. Chicago: Holt Rinehart and Winston.

Crystal, D. (1987). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.

Ferguson, C. A. 1959. Diglossia. Word, 15: 352-40. In Giglioli (1972) and Hymes (1964a).

Fishman, J. 1967. Bilingualism with and without Diglossia; Diglossia with and without Bilingualism. J. Social Issues, vol. 23.

Fishman, J. 1971. Sociolinguistics: A Brief Introduction. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House.

Fishman, J. 1972. Language in Sociocultural Change. Standford: Standford University Press.

Fromkin, V. & Rodman, R. 1998. An Introduction to Language (6th edition). Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt Brace College Publishers.

Gay, L.R. 1987. Educational Research: Competencies for Analysis and Application (4th Ed). Ohio: Merill.

Gumperz, J.J. 1971. Language in Social Groups. Stanford University Press.

Gumperz, J.J. 1982. Discourse Strategies: Studies in Interactional Sociolinguistics 1. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Hamers, F.J & Blanc, H.A.M. 1987. Bilinguality and Bilingualism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Hoffman, C. 1991. An Introduction to Bilingualism. New York: Longman.

Labov, W. 1972b. Sociolinguistics Patterns. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

Platt, J.T. & Heidi K. 1975. The Social Significance of Speech. Amsterdam: North Holland Publisher.

Saville-Troike, M. 1986. The Ethnography of Communication: An Introduction. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

Scotton, C.M. (1986). Diglossia and code-switching. In Fishman (1986, ed.), 403-15.

Spolsky, B. 1998. Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Steinberg, D.D., Nagata, H. & Aline, D.P. 2001. Psycholinguistics: Language, Mind and World. Edinburgh Gate: Pearson Education Ltd.

Syafi’ie, I. 1981. Diglossia dan Situasi Kebahasaan di Indonesia. Warta Scientia, 11 (34): 50-53.


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Artikel Skripsi Penjaskes

PEMBELAJARAN REMIDIAL TEKNIK DASAR

SERVIS ATAS BOLAVOLI SISWA PUTRA KELAS XI IPA

SMA LABORATORIUM UM MALANG

Dhydiet Setya Budhy

Abstrak: Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk membantu siswa yang mengalami kesulitan belajar keterampilan teknik dasar servis atas bolavoli dengan menggunakan metode pembelajaran yang telah dimodivikasi. Metode penelitian yang digunakan adalah observasi dengan menggunakan rancangan penelitian tindakan kelas dengan satu (1) siklus dua (2) kali pertemuan. Peneliti melakukan observasi terhadap subyek sebelum dilakukannya penelitian. Subyek diberikan pembelajaran remidial oleh guru dengan menggunakan rencana pembelajaran (RP) yang telah dibuat sesuai dengan kendala yang dialami pada pembelajaran terdahulu, lalu dilakukan evaluasi pembelajaran pada ahir siklus. Hasil penelitian ini siswa mampu meningkatkan ketrampilan melakukan teknik dasar servis atas bolavoli setelah mendapatkan proses pembelajaran remidial.

Kata-kata Kunci: pembelajaran remidial, teknik dasar servis atas bolavoli

Pada proses pembelajaran pendidikan jasmani ditekankan pada pengembangan individu secara menyeluruh, dalam artian pengembangan intelektual, keterampilan afektif, termasuk pengembangan mental spiritual, pengembangan fisik dan kesegaran jasmani. Di samping itu pendidikan jasmani tidak diarahkan untuk menguasai cabang olahraga. Namun lebih mengutamakan proses perkembangan moral siswa. Keberhasilan proses pembelajaran sangat tergantung pada apresiasi, kreativitas, kemauan dan kemampuan. Begitu juga aspek kognitif, afektif, psikomotorik sangat mempengaruhi tingkat keberhasilan pembelajaran pendidikan jasmani. Pembelajaran remidial sendiri merupakan tindak lanjut dari proses pembelajaran yang sudah berlangsung untuk menyempurnakan hasil yang dicapai atau membuat lebih baik dari yang sudah ada. Menurut Ischak (1982:1) salah satu bentuk kegiatan pemberian bantuan itu. Yaitu pemberian bantuan di dalam proses belajar mengajar yang berupa kegiatan perbaikan yang terprogram dan disusun secara sistematis.

Servis atas merupakan salah satu teknik untuk memulai jalannya permainan bolavoli dengan cara melambungkan bola menggunakan tangan kiri ke atas sehingga bola melambung mendekati kepala, dilanjutkan memukul bola dengan tangan kanan dengan titik pukulan satu raihan di depan atas kepala, ditopang dengan kuda-kuda kaki kiri di depan dan kaki kanan di belakang. Menurut Bonnie Robinson (1989:36) adalah berdirilah di tempat yang telah tersedia, lalu memukul bola pada arah yang berlawanan menggunakan satu tangan, menuju daerah pertahanan lawan

METODE

Penelitian ini adalah penelitian tindakan kelas dengan cara observasi, pembuatan rencana pembelajaran (RP), pelaksanaan pelajaran, refleksi guru. penelitian ini menggunakan acuan menurut Kemmis dan Mc Taggart (dalam Dr. M.E.Winarno, 2005:88) mengemukakan prosedur rancangan pengembangan penelitian tindakan kelas ke dalam gambar yang dapat mewakili dari proses pembelajaran remedial yang dilakukan.

Penelitian ini menggunakan satu siklus dengan dua kali pertemuan. Pada akhir pertemuan pertama dilakukan refleksi pada guru, dan selanjutnya dilakukan evaluasi pada pertemuan ke dua yang bertujuan untuk mengetahui hasil dari proses pembelajaran remedial teknik dasar servis atas bolavoli pada siswa putra kelas XI IPA SMA LABORATORIUM UM Malang yang berjumlah 24 , penelitian ini dilakukan satu siklus dua kali pertemuan dengan lama waktu pelajaran 2jam pelajaran atau 2 x 45 menit.

Setelah data yang dibutuhkan sudah terkumpul maka langkah selanjutnya mendeskripsikan hasil evaluasi pembelajaran remedial teknik dasar servis atas bolavoli dengan menggunakan rumus persentase milik Sudijono. Adapun rumusan tersebut adalah sebagai berikut:

P = F/N x 100 %

Keterangan :

P : Persentase

F : Frekwensi

N : Jumlah Responden

HASIL

Dilihat dari data observasi sebelum pembelajaran remedial dan data evaluasi pada akhir pertemuan ke dua bagian gerakan teknik dasar servis atas bolavoli yang dilakukan siswa menunjukkan bahwa posisi kaki terdapat 7 siswa (29,1%) dalam skala 2 (sedang) dan 17 siswa (70.9%) skala 3 (baik), setelah dilakukan remedial siswa sudah dapat mencapai skala 3 (baik) seluruhnya. Pada posisi tangan 10 (42,7%) siswa dalam skala 1 (kurang), 8 (33,3%) dalam skala 2 (sedang), 6 (25%) dalam skala 3 (baik), setelah dilakukan remedial 10 (41.7%) siswa dapat mencapai skala 2 (sedang) dan 14 (58,3%) mencapai skala 3 (baik). Pada posisi tubuh terdapat 6 (25%) dalam skala 2 (sedang) dan 18 (75%) siswa pada skala 3 (baik), setelah dilakukan remedial siswa sudah dapat mencapai skala 3 (baik) secara keseluruhan (100%). Pada impact bola terdapat 9 (37,5%) siswa dalam skala 1 (kurang),9 (37,5%) skala 2 (sedang) dan 6 (25%) pada skala 3 (baik), setelah dilakukan remedial 9 (37,5%) siswa sudah dapat mencapai skala 2 (sedang) dan 15 (62,5%) siswa dalam skala 3 (baik). Pada hasil pukulan yang dilakukan siswa terdapat 9 (37,5%) dalam skala 1 (kurang), 10 (41,7%) siswa pada skala 2 (sedang) dan 5 (20,8%) dalam skala 3 (baik), setelah dilakukan remedial 9 (37,5%) siswa sudah dapat mencapai skala 2 (sedang) dan 15 (62,5%) siswa dalam skala 3 (baik). Berdasarkan hasil evaluasi yang telah dilakukan pada siklus I (satu) pertemuan ke II (dua), kesalahan teknik yang dilakukan pada kegiatan observasi sudah tidak terlihat lagi. Dengan begitu diketahui bahwa siswa kelas XI IPA SMA LABORATORIUM UM Malang sudah baik dan benar dalam melakukan keterampilan gerakan teknik dasar servis atas bolavoli.

Analisis Data

Setelah data jumlah siswa yang benar dan jumlah siswa yang salah dalam melakukan teknik servis atas Bolavoli diketahui, selanjutnya peneliti melakukan analisis data. Tujuan analisis data ini adalah untuk mengetahui jumlah siswa yang benar dan jumlah siswa yang salah dalam persen (%) sehingga peneliti lebih mudah dalam mendeskripsikan hasil penelitian yang telah dilaksanakan. Dari data yang ada terdapat perbedaan antara hasil dari pengamat I dan pengamat II, oleh karena itu sebelumnya peneliti mencari rata-rata perbedaan tersebut. Setelah diketahui hasilnya di analisis dengan rumus persentase.

PEMBAHASAN

Penelitian ini dilaksanakan sebanyak I (satu) siklus dengan 2 (dua) kali pertemuan. Berdasarkan hasil validasi dengan ahli pembelajaran, dalam setiap pertemuan sebelum pelaksanaan pembelajaran peneliti menyiapkan rencana pembelajaran (RP) sebagai pedoman pembelajaran teknik dasar servis atas bolavoli. Guru dalam penelitian ini adalah sebagai penyampai materi ke siswa mulai dari pemanasan untuk menyiapkan siswa menuju materi inti hingga siswa merasa siap melakukan pelajaran inti dan diakhiri dengan pendinginan dengan berpasangan.

Siklus 1 pertemuan ke 1

Mengidentifikasi masalah yang dihadapi oleh siswa putra kelas XI IPA SMA LABORATORIUM UM Malang dalam melakukan teknik dasar servis atas bolavoli diketahui masih salah dalam melakukan gerakan. Kesalahan teknik tersebut disebabkan karena siswa enggan melakukan servis atas bolavoli dengan bola sesungguhnya yang dianggap terlalu berat dan keras, sehingga siswa takut tidak dapat menyeberangkan bola kelapangan lawan ketika melakukan servis atas.

Selanjutnya peneliti merencanakan untuk melakukan pembelajaran remedial teknik dasar servis atas bolavoli dengan menggunakan bola mainan sebanyak 12 (dua belas) buah dengan jumlah siswa sebanyak 24 sebagai sarana pembelajaran untuk memperbaiki teknik dasar servis atas bolavoli yang dilakukan oleh guru pendidikan jasmani.

Refleksi

Refleksi yang ditujukan pada guru pendidikan jasmani bertujuan untuk meningkatkan kemampuan dalam pembuatan rencana pembelajaran (RP) materi teknik dasar servis atas bolavoli, tingkat kesulitan guru dalam menjalankan program pembelajaran remedial, serta penggunaan bola mainan sebagai alat bantu pembelajaran remedial.

Siklus 1 pertemuan ke 1

Pertemuan kedua ini berlangsung 2 x 45 menit dengan 10 (sepuluh ) menit untuk teknik servis atas tanpa bola, 30 (tiga puluh) menit latihan teknik servis atas dengan bola mainan, 20 (dua puluh) menit latihan servis atas dengan bola voli sesungguhnya untuk menyiapkan kondisi siswa dalam pelaksanaan evaluasi pada akhir pembelajaran, 10 (sepuluh) menit kegiatan remedial dan 20 (dua puluh) menit, sisanya untuk pelaksanaan observasi setelah pembelajaran remidial.

Evaluasi Pembelajaran.

Kegiatan evaluasi ini dilakukan dengan cara siswa melakukan servis atas sebanyak 10 (sepuluh) kali dengan 2 (dua) kali percobaan pada lapangan permainan bolavoli secara urut menurut nomor absen. Bersamaan dengan siswa melakukan tes para jadi mengamati teknik gerakan yang dilakukan siswa yang melakukan tes. Dari hasil pengamatan jadi didapatkan data yang berupa simbol-simbol angka yang nantinya dapat menunjukkan tingkat kemampuan siswa dalam melakukan servis atas bolavoli. Dari data yang berupa simbol-simbol angka tersebut nantinya dapat diketahui berapa jumlah siswa yang kurang bisa, siswa yang kemampuannya sedang, dan berapa siswa yang dapat melakukan servis atas dengan gerakan-gerakan teknik dasar yang baik.

KESIMPULAN

Kesimpulan dari penelitian adalah untuk memperbaiki kemampuan guru terhadap pembuatan rencana pengajaran (RP) siswa putra kelas XI IPA SMA LABORATORIUM UM Malang dalam melakukan gerakan teknik dasar Servis atas bolavoli, yang nantinya akan berpengaruh pada hasil dari proses pembelajaran yang dicapai oleh siswa. Setelah dilakukannya pembelajaran remedial teknik dasar servis atas bolavoli dengan 1 siklus 2 pertemuan, siswa putra kelas XI IPA SMA LABORATORIUM UM Malang sudah mengalami peningkatan yang sudah bisa menguasai keterampilan teknik dasar servis atas bolavoli. Di dalam pelaksanaan penelitian tersebut, peneliti yang bertindak sebagai rekan kerja guru pendidikan jasmani.

Saran

Perlu dilakukan penelitian lebih lanjut dalam pembelajaran remedial untuk menemukan langkah-langkah yang lebih efektif, praktis dan ekonomis.

Sebaiknya guru pendidikan jasmani lebih kreatif dan inovatif sehingga pembelajaran yang dilakukan bisa menyenangkan siswa, menumbuhkan rasa percaya diri siswa dan tentunya tujuan pembelajaran itu sendiri bisa tercapai

Sebaiknya guru pendidikan jasmani menggunakan cara atau metode pembelajaran yang berbeda, seperti penggunaan bola mainan.

KAJIAN PUSTAKA

Ischak. S.W. 1982. Program Remedial Dalam Proses Belajar-Mengajar.Yogya karta: Liberty.

Robinson. B. 1987. Bola Voli Bimbingan. Petunjuk Dan Teknik Bermain. Jakarta: Dahara Prize.

Sudijono, A. 1991. Pengantar Statistika Pendidikan. Jakarta: Rajawali Pers.

Winarno. 2005. Metodologi Penelitian Dalam Pendidikan Jasmani.Malang: Labolatorium Jurusan Ilmu Olah Raga Fakultas Ilmu Pendidikan Universitas Negeri Malang.

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Artikel Skripsi: Politeness Strategies

Politeness Strategies Used by Indonesian Chatters in Internet Relay Chat (IRC)

Ima Khalimatus Sa’diyah

Abstract

ImageThe purpose of this study is to find out politeness strategies used by Indonesian chatters in the discourse of online environment specifically in IRC channels. This study investigates three downloaded data of written conversations or messages in the IRC. The data were collected by logging in into an IRC channel, which is #Caféislam, for approximately two hours and then copying the conversations or messages written by the Indonesian chatters in the channel into the computer hard disk. The written conversations or messages that are taken as data are only the one containing face-threatening act (FTA). The data are analyzed using Brown and Levinson’s theory of politeness strategy (1987). Based on Brown and Levinson’s model of politeness strategy (1987), the politeness strategies used in chat conversations to reduce the FTA are grouped into four main strategies: Bald on Record, Positive Politeness, Negative Politeness, and Off-the-Record. The results of the analysis show that bald on record strategy is most widely used by Indonesian chatters in IRC. It may happen due to the setting of the conversation that is the cyber world where the people communicate there may not really know each other and they may never meet in the ‘real’ world. It can be said that there is almost no boundary for everyone to say what they want to say.


Keywords: Internet Relay Chat (IRC), chatting in IRC, Indonesian chatters, politeness strategies, face-threatening act.

Introduction

Human is social creature that has the need to communicate with others. Communication is defined as a process by which we assign and convey meanings in an attempt to create shared understanding, both the speaker and hearer should hold to general rules or principles and thereby use certain strategies. An often used strategy to achieve this is politeness (Renkema, 1993).

Leech (1983) defines politeness as “a form of behavior that establishes and maintains comity”, that is, “the ability of participants in a social interaction to engage in interaction in an atmosphere of relative harmony”. Brown and Levinson (1987) suggest politeness as a compensation action taken to counter-balance the disruptive effect of face-threatening acts (FTAs). Further, they describe Face Threatening Acts as “acts that infringe on the hearer’s need to maintain his/her self-esteem and be respected” (Brown and Levinson, 1987).

According to Brown and Levinson, politeness strategies are developed in order to save the hearer’s “face”. Face refers to a speaker’s sense of linguistic and social identity, which is defined as “the public self-image that every member (of the society) wants to claim for himself” (Brown and Levinson, 1987).

However, this linguistic aspect occurs in the verbal communication of the real conversation not only in the real world but also in the cyber world. Nowadays, since technology has developed very rapidly, people can communicate with others using many kinds of media. One of the technologies used by quite a few people in the world is the internet. The internet is a system that has revolutionized visual, oral, written communications and methods of commerce by allowing various computer networks around the world to interconnect, sometimes referred as a “network of networks” (Abdillah, 2005). Therefore, it is possible for people to communicate visually, orally, and in written form by using Personal Computer and Internet modem.

To communicate in the written form via the internet, people can use the facilities which are called e-mail and chat. Chat or chatting via the internet is a real-time communication between two users via computer and the users are popularly-known as “chatters”. Once a chat has been initiated, either user can enter text by typing on the keyboard and the entered text will appear on the other user's monitor. Most networks and online services offer a chat feature. One of the common and popular internet facilities for chatting is the IRC (Internet Relay Chat).

IRC is one of the internet free facilities which can be accessed by many internet chatters, even newbies. On-line chat-channels in IRC have become a popular environment for meeting new people and for general conversations. These chat-channels are comparable to “real-life” situations where participants interact at the same time and often in the same spatial environment. The same conversational rules are adhered to both in chat-channel conversations and in face-to-face interaction. However, some specific features of chat-channel conversation, such as the politeness strategies, might be different from those we meet outside the cyberspace.

Some researchers have studied about the IRC community, but only Ahti and Lähtevänoja (2002) from University of Helsinki, Finland, talked about the politeness strategies used there. Yet, they only talked about the politeness in opening sequences in Finnish and Finland-Swedish chat conversations.

Since there is no study about the politeness strategies used by Indonesian chatters, in this present study, the researcher tries to explain the politeness strategies used by Indonesian chatters in IRC channel discussion through observation and analysis.

Literature Review

Politeness

Politeness is an aspect of pragmatics in that its use in language is determined by an external context. This external context is the context of communication, which is determined by the social status of the participants: politeness is a system used by the speaker in order to keep up to the addressee’s expectations. According to Grundy’s account (Grundy 1995: 135) we are told that the determiners of the need to use politeness strategies are three: distance, power and imposition. Imposition covers every action (by this we also mean speech acts) which threatens the addressee’s autonomy and freedom of action and usually is conveyed in the form of an order; power is evaluated in terms of numerous factors such as position in society and age; distance implies the evaluation of the other’s place in the world, degree of familiarity and/or solidarity towards the addressee.

An important source of inspiration in the study of politeness phenomena is the work done by Ervin Goffman (1955). Goffman, a psychologist, wanted social interaction, including verbal communication, to be studied from the perspective that a participant are striving for stability in their relationship with others. He claimed that every participant in the social process has the need to be appreciated by others and the need not to be interfered with. Goffman also introduced the concept of “face”, which later became an inspiration for further study by Brown and Levinson.

Politeness Strategy

According to Brown and Levinson (1987), politeness strategies are developed to save the hearer’s face. Face refers to the respect that an individual has for him or herself, and maintaining that “self-esteem” in public or in private situations. Their notions of ‘face is derived from that of Goffman (1967, as cited in Brown and Levinson 1987) and from the English folk term, which is related to notions of being embarrassed or humiliated, or ‘losing face’. Brown and Levinson stated that there are two types of face in an interaction:

  1. Negative face: the want of every ‘competent adult member’ that his actions can be unimpeded by others.
  2. Positive face: the want of every member that his wants be desirable to at least some others.

Face Threatening Acts

According to Brown and Levinson, Face Threatening Acts (FTA's) are acts that infringe on the hearers' need to maintain his/her self esteem. If we do or are about threaten someone’s positive or negative face, but do not mean it, we need to minimize it by applying politeness strategies that are Bald on Record, Positive Politeness, Negative Politeness, and Off-the-Record (as suggested by Brown and Levinson, 1987).

Strategies for doing FTA

The possible strategies for doing the FTA are shown below:

Image

Fig 2.1 Possible strategies for doing FTAs

Bald on Record Strategy

In the bald on record strategy, the speaker does nothing to minimize threats to the hearer’s face. The prime reason for its usage is that whenever a speaker (S) wants to do the FTA with maximum efficiency more than he wants to satisfy the hearer’s (H’s) face, even to any degree, he will chose bald on record strategy (Brown and Levinson, 1987: 95). There are, however, different kinds of bald on record usage in different circumstances, because S can have different motives for his want to do the FTA with maximum efficiency. It is divided into two classes:

1. Cases of non-minimization of the face threat.

This is where maximum efficiency is very important, and this is mutually known to both H and S, no face redress necessary. The situations are presented as follows:

a. In cases of great urgency or desperation.

b. Cases of channel noise, or where communication difficulties exploit pressure to speak with maximum efficiency such as in calling across a distance.

c. Task-oriented, in this kind of interaction face redress will be irrelevant.

d. S’s want to satisfy H’s face is small, either because S is powerful and does not fear retribution or non-cooperation from H.

e. S wants to be rude without risk of offending, so S does not care about maintaining face.

f. Sympathetic advice or warnings.

g. Granting permission for something that H has requested.

2. Cases of FTA-oriented bald on record usage.

The use of this strategy is oriented to face. In other words, it is used where face involves mutual orientation, so that each participant attempts to foresee what the other participant is attempting to foresee. For in certain circumstances it is reasonable for S to assume that H will be especially worried with H’s potential violation or S’s maintaining. There are three functional categories or areas where we expect the pre-emptive invitations to occur in all languages (which are potential to FTA):

a. Welcoming

b. Farewell

c. Offers

Positive Politeness Strategy

The positive politeness strategy is usually seen in groups of friends, or where people in the given social situation know each other fairly well. It usually tries to minimize the distance between them by expressing friendliness and solid interest in the hearer's need to be respected (minimize the FTA). The only feature that distinguishes positive politeness compensation from normal everyday intimate language behavior is an element of exaggeration.

There are fifteen sub-strategies that are used in positive politeness strategies:

1. Notice, attend to H (his interests, wants, needs, goods).

2. Exaggerate (interest approval, sympathy with H)

3. Intensify interest to H

4. Use in-group identity markers

5. Seek agreement

6. Avoid disagreement

7. Presuppose/raise/assert common ground

8. Jokes

9. Assert or presuppose S’s knowledge of and concern for H’s wants.

10. Offer, promise.

11. Be optimistic

12. Include both S and H in the activity

13. Give (or ask for) reasons

14. Assume or assert reciprocity

15. Give gifts to H (goods, sympathy, understanding, cooperation)

Negative Politeness Strategy

Negative politeness is defined as “a redressive action addressed to the addressee’s negative face: his want to have his freedom of action unobstructed and his attention unrestricted” (Brown and Levinson, 1987). Negative politeness strategy recognizes the hearer’s face, but it also recognizes that the speaker is in some way forcing on them. Some of the sub-strategies of negative politeness are:

1. Be conventionally indirect.

2. Question, hedge.

3. Be pessimistic.

4. Minimize imposition

5. Give difference

6. Apologize

7. Impersonalize S and H

8. State the FTA as general rule

9. Nominalize

10. Go on record as incurring debt, or as not indebting H.

Off-the-record Strategy

According to Brown and Levinson (1987), a communicative act is done off-record if it is done in such a way that it is not possible to attribute only one clear communicative intention to the act. Thus, if a speaker wants to do an FTA, but wants to avoid the responsibility for doing it, he can do it off-record and leave it up the addressee to decide how to interpret it.

Some sub-strategies of off-record:

1. Give hints

2. Give association clues

3. Presuppose

4. Understate

5. Overstate

6. Tautologies

7. Contradictions

8. Be ironic

9. Use metaphors

10. Use rhetorical questions

11. Be ambiguous

12. Be vague

13. Over-generalize

14. Displace H

15. Be incomplete, use ellipsis

Research questions

  1. What types of politeness strategies are used by Indonesian chatters in the IRC?
  2. How do Indonesian chatters use politeness strategies in the IRC?

Methodology

The research design of this study was descriptive qualitative. The researcher tried to report and describe the data or the information as the way the things are; therefore the researcher did not change any content of the information for the sake of the ingenuity of the data required. The technique used, as in most descriptive research, was the observation technique, since it could exactly describe how IRC chatters responded directly to other IRC chatters in the channel. All messages sent by the researcher were not considered as part of the data because Fraenkell and Wallen (1993, in Abdillah 2005) state that in observing the activities of a certain group, the researcher is not a participant.

Since this research was descriptive qualitative, the main instrument of this research was the researcher herself as the key human-instrument. An additional instrument used was a table, which was needed to systematize the phenomena found from the criteria that had been determined.

Below is the example of the table used in the study:

Table 1 : Data

No

Code

Interlocutors & Dialogs

Chosen Strategy

1

2.2 POS

banyak banget pelanggaran dan pelecehan terhadap laki2

yang melecehkan itu perempuan dan laki2 juga

jadi kita perlu komisi nasional yang melindungi kaum laki2

yap...

Positive (give gift)

Procedure

After connected to the internet, the researcher opened an IRC window and selected the channel the researcher wanted to join. The researcher joined the channel for approximately two hours from around 7 p.m. until 9 p.m. The researcher chose that time because it was a kind of ‘rush hour’ in the internet chat channels. It may happen since it was the time to rest or relax for Indonesian people. After approximately two hours, the researcher logged out from the channel, then wrote the date of each IRC connection and downloaded all the written conversations in the Internet Relay Chat channel (mIRC Caféislam) into the researcher’s hard disk. Next, the researcher printed out the written conversations and started to identify the messages which contained FTA then marked them. These marked messages became the data.

Data Analysis

The researcher used document analysis because the data here were in the form of written or visual material (IRC messages). Data analysis and data collection in qualitative study cannot be separated. While collecting the data, interpreting and analyzing them also took place. The researcher classified the data according to the FTA contained in it. In this case, it was about what kind of politeness strategy used by the chatters, whether they were bald on record, positive politeness, negative politeness, or off-record based on Brown and Levinson’s theory. These activities could not be separated from analyzing and interpreting the FTA. After that, the researcher described the data contained FTA which was found, and then it was explained. In obtaining the data, several dialogs with quite similar patterns were taken, identified, and analyzed to determine whether they had the same patterns or not. The last, the researcher summarized and concluded the discussion of the findings.

Findings and Discussion

The findings show that the politeness strategies mostly used by Indonesian chatters in IRC is Bald on Record with 45 times of usage (41.28%), followed by Positive Politeness which was used 40 times (36.7%), Negative Politeness which was used 19 times (17.43%), and then Off-the-record which was used only 5 times (4.59%) as presented in Table 2 below:

Table 2: Distribution of the Types of Politeness Strategy

No

Politeness Strategies

Frequency

Percentage (%)

1

Bald on Record

45

41.28

2

Positive Politeness

40

36.7

3

Negative Politeness

19

17.43

4

Off-the-record

5

4.59

Total

109

100

Below in table 3, is the frequency of each variation of bald on-record strategy used by Indonesian chatters in IRC:

Table 3: Distribution of the Variation of Bald on Record Strategy

BOR

Frequency

Percentage (%)

Non Minimization of Face Threat

Desperation

2

4.44

Case of Channel Noise

1

2.22

Task-oriented

6

13.33

S wants to satisfy H’s face is small

1

2.22

S wants to be rude

9

20

Sympathetic advice/warning

13

28.9

Granting permission

3

6.67

Face Oriented

Farewell

5

11.11

Offer

5

11.11

Total

45

100

From the table above, it can be seen that in the chatting conversation, Indonesian chatters used many variation of bald on-record strategy. Sympathetic advice/warning is frequently used by the chatters (13 times). It may happen because the conversation is in the form of sharing where chatters tell a story about themselves or state their opinion about something.

The distribution of the variation of positive politeness strategy can be seen in Table 4.3 below:

Table 4: Distribution of the Variation of Positive Politeness Strategy

POS

Frequency

Percentage (%)

Notice, attend to H (his interests, wants, needs, goods)

6

15

Exaggerate (interest approval, sympathy with H)

1

2.5

Intensify interest to H

1

2.5

Use in-group identity markers

Address forms

3

7.5

In-group language or dialect

2

5

Contraction and Ellipsis

2

5

Seek Agreement

1

2.5

Avoid Disagreement

2

5

Presuppose/raise/assert common ground

4

10

Include both S and H in the activity

2

5

Give (or ask for) reason

1

2.5

Give gifts to H (goods, sympathy, understanding, cooperation)

15

37.5

Total

40

100

As shown in Table 4.3, positive politeness strategy which is mostly applied by Indonesian chatters in IRC is by giving gift, either in the form of sympathy, undertanding, or cooperation. In line with Bald on record strategy, it may happen due to the form of the conversation that is sharing problems and ideas. In this case, S satisfies H’s positive face by giving gift, not only in the form of thing, but human-relation wants to be liked, admired, care about, understood, listened to, etc.

Below is the distribution of the variation of negative politeness strategy:

Table 5: Distribution of the Variation of Negative Politeness Strategy

NEG

Frequency

Percentage (%)

Be conventionally indirect

10

52.63

Question, hedge

2

10.53

Minimize imposition

4

21.05

Apologize

1

5.26

Impersonalize S and H

2

10.53

Total

19

100

From the table above, it is clearly seen that negative politeness strategy is not much used by Indonesian chatters in IRC. The negative strategy mostly used by the chatters is by being indirect. It may happen due to the influence of Indonesian culture where Indonesian people tend to be indirect in saying something.

A speaker uses off-record strategy when he/she wants to avoid the responsibility of doing an FTA. When a speaker uses off-record strategy, he/she leaves the FTA up the addressee to decide how to interpret it since here the speaker must say something in general (less information) or different from what he means (Brown and Levinson’ 1987: 211)

Table 6: Distribution of the Variation of Off-the-Record Strategy

OFF

Frequency

Percentage (%)

Give association clues

1

20

Be vague

1

20

Over-generalize

1

20

Use saying

2

40

Total

5

100

A shown in Table 4.5, off-record strategy is very rarely used by Indonesian chatters in IRC. Yet, there is a new sub strategy found here, that is doing the off-record strategy by using ‘saying’. Although it is similar to the sub strategies ‘by using metaphors’ and ‘tautologies’, the findings do not match to both of the sub strategies.

Conclusions

From the findings, it is discovered that politeness strategies are also applied in computer-mediated communication, as presented by Indonesian chatters in the IRC. Politeness is used to maintain the social value of the community, including in virtual-community. The chatters use the strategy of politeness when they talk in the channel to reduce the FTA in saying something. The findings show that bald on record strategy is the most frequently used by Indonesian chatters in IRC. Most chatters use the strategy without considering other chatters’ feeling or face. It may happen due to the setting of the conversation that is the cyber world where the people communicate there may not really know each other and they may never meet in the ‘real’ world. This setting makes them able to say whatever they want to say without any risk to themselves. Still, the characteristics of Face Threatening Acts proposed by Brown and Levinson fit in some way. The efficiency, indifference, and disregard of others’ feeling have become the central consideration in choosing bald on record strategy.

Positive politeness is also quite widely used by Indonesian chatters in the IRC in order to show their respect and regard toward the other chatters. Generally, the chatters use the positive politeness strategy when they agree with other chatter’s opinion and willing to cooperate or when they want to minimize the FTA in disagreeing with others.

Negative politeness strategy is generally used by Indonesian chatters in IRC when they want to ask other chatters to do something and to show that the interlocutor recognizes the addressee’s want to have his freedom of action unobstructed. A rather different phenomenon from what happen in the ‘real’ world is that sometimes Indonesian chatters in IRC minimize the imposition of the FTA by writing smiley sign (e.g. :) or ^_^) or grinning expression (e.g. ‘hehehe’). It happens since the chatters in IRC cannot see each other’s face.

Off-the-record strategy of politeness is the least used by Indonesian chatters in IRC. In line with bald on record strategy, it may happen due to the setting of the conversation which is the virtual community where there is almost no boundary for everyone to say what they want to say. In the findings, there is a new sub strategy found, that is by using saying. It appears that Indonesian chatters in IRC prefer to use saying rather than other off-the-record strategy such as using tautologies or metaphors. It happens because the conversations are in the form of discussions and it is usual in Indonesia to counter somebody’s ‘attack’ or argument with saying.

Suggestions

In studying politeness strategy in pragmatics, students have to be aware of the distance and the social factors which influence the use of specified strategy of politeness. This research may also suggest that pragmatic students observe more pragmatic studies. It may stand up-to-date since they can always be done to any current communication media.

Lecturers of pragmatics can help to improve the students’ awareness about the difference between the strategies of politeness. Learning politeness strategy can also be done in various aspects of discourse, not only in the ‘real’ world but also in the virtual-community.

While, a future researcher can analyze the politeness strategy used by people in e-mails. Further, they can compare the politeness strategy used by men and women when they write e-mails and analyze the effect of the strategy used. It can be done since gender difference also influence the politeness applied.

Future researchers can also improve this research by conducting a similar research in the private message in IRC. Here, the future researchers can observe the politeness strategies used by the IRC chatters when they talk privately (e.g. what kind of politeness strategy which they select to answer a personal question). The future researchers even may compare the politeness strategy used by Indonesian and English chatters in the private message. It is since in each culture, people have different values in communicating; thus it will influence the politeness employed in the same context. Then, the future researchers can analyze the effects of the strategy (how the strategy is responded).

Pragmatics is a quite popular subject taken as thesis’ topic in English Department of State University of Malang. Yet, there is not much literature about pragmatics that is available in both faculty library and main library. It is hoped that in the future the university can provide more literature talking about this subject.

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